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Rules are not perfect. Disabling useful features in specific situations may affect code implementation. However, the rules are formulated "to help most programmers to get more benefits". If a rule is found unhelpful or difficult to follow in team coding, please send your feedback to us so we can improve the rule accordingly. Before referring to this guide, you are expected to have the following basic capabilities for C++. It is not for a beginner that wants to learn about C++.
Code must meet the requirements for readability, maintainability, security, reliability, testability, efficiency, and portability while ensuring functionality correctness.
Rule: a regulating principle that must be followed during programming.
Recommendation: a guideline that must be considered during programming.
This document is applicable to standard C++ versions (C++ 03/11/14/17) unless otherwise specified in the rule.
It is necessary to understand the reason for each rule or recommendation and to try and comply with them. However, some rules and recommendations have exceptions.
The only acceptable exceptions are those that do not violate the general principles and provide appropriate reasons for the exception. Try to avoid exceptions because they affect the code consistency. Exceptions to 'Rules' should be very rare.
The style consistency principle is preferred in the following case:
When you modify external open source or third-party code, the existing code specifications prevail.
CamelCase CamelCase is the practice of writing compound words or phrases so that each word or abbreviation in the phrase begins with a capital letter, with no intervening spaces or punctuation. There are two conventions: UpperCamelCase and lowerCamelCase.
| Type | Naming Style |
|---|---|
| Class Type, Struct Type, Enumeration Type, and Union Type Definitions, Scope Name | UpperCamelCase |
| Functions (Including Global Functions, Scope Functions, and Member Functions) | UpperCamelCase |
| Global Variables (Including Variables of the Global and Namespace Scopes, Namespace Variables, and Class Static Variables), Local Variables, Function Parameters, and Class, Struct, and Union Member Variables | lowerCamelCase |
| Macro, Constant, Enumerated Value, goto Tag | All caps, separated with underscores (_) |
Note: Constant indicates the variables of the basic, enumeration, or character string type modified by const or constexpr in the global scope, the namespace scope, and the scope of a static member of a class. Variable indicates the variables excluding those defined in Constant. These variables use the lowerCamelCase style.
It is recommended that you use .h as the name extension of a header file so that the header file can be directly compatible with C and C++. It is recommended that you use .cpp as the name extension of an implementation file. In this way, you can directly distinguish C++ code from C code.
At present, there are some other file name extensions used by programmers:
If your project team uses a specific file name extension, you can continue to use it and keep the style consistent. This document uses .h and .cpp extensions.
The names of the C++ header file and the C++ implementation file must be the same as the class name. Use the CamelCase or Kernel style and keep the style consistent.
For example, if there is a class named DatabaseConnection, the corresponding file names are as follows:
The naming rules of struct, namespace, and enumeration definition files are similar to the rules above.
Functions are named in UpperCamelCase. Generally, the verb or verb-object structure is used.
class List {
public:
void AddElement(const Element& element);
Element GetElement(const unsigned int index) const;
bool IsEmpty() const;
};
namespace Utils {
void DeleteUser();
}
Types are named in the UpperCamelCase style. All types, such as classes, structs, unions, typedefs, and enumerations, use the same conventions. For example:
// classes, structs and unions
class UrlTable { ...
class UrlTableTester { ...
struct UrlTableProperties { ...
union Packet { ...
// typedefs
typedef std::map<std::string, UrlTableProperties*> PropertiesMap;
// enums
enum UrlTableErrors { ...
For namespace naming, UpperCamelCase is recommended.
// namespace
namespace OsUtils {
namespace FileUtils {
}
}
Unless otherwise specified, do not use typedef or #define to redefine a basic value type.
The basic types found in the <cstdint> header file are preferable.
| Signed Type | Unsigned Type | Description |
|---|---|---|
| int8_t | uint8_t | The signed or unsigned 8-bit integer type. |
| int16_t | uint16_t | The signed or unsigned 16-bit integer type. |
| int32_t | uint32_t | The signed or unsigned 32-bit integer type. |
| int64_t | uint64_t | The signed or unsigned 64-bit integer type. |
| intptr_t | uintptr_t | The signed or unsigned integer type large enough to hold a pointer. |
General variables are named in lowerCamelCase, including global variables, function parameters, local variables, and member variables.
std::string tableName; // Good: Recommended style.
std::string tablename; // Bad: Forbidden style.
std::string path; // Good: When there is only one word, lowerCamelCase (all lowercase) is used.
Global variables should be used as little as possible, and special attention should be paid to the use of global variables. This prefix highlights global variables so that developers can be more careful when handling them.
int g_activeConnectCount;
void Func()
{
static int packetCount = 0;
...
}
class Foo {
private:
std::string fileName_; // Add the _ postfix, similar to the K&R naming style.
};
Use the lowerCamelCase style and do not add prefixes or suffixes to name a member variable of the struct or union type. Keep the naming style consistent with that for a local variable.
For macros and enumerated values, use all caps separated with underscores (_).
In the global scope, constants of named and unnamed namespaces and static member constants should be capitalized and separated with underscores (_). Local constants and ordinary const member variables use the lowerCamelCase naming style.
#define MAX(a, b) (((a) < (b))? (b): (a)) // Though examples of Macro names are made, you are not advised to use macros to implement this function.
enum BaseColor { // Note: Enumerated types are named in the UpperCamelCase style, while their values are all capitalized and separated with underscores (_).
RED,
DARK_RED,
GREEN,
LIGHT_GREEN
};
int Func(...)
{
const unsigned int bufferSize = 100; // Local variable
char *p = new char[bufferSize];
...
}
namespace Utils {
const unsigned int DEFAULT_FILE_SIZE_KB = 200; // Global variable
}
** Note: **It is recommended that the number of characters in each line not exceed 120. It is recommended that the number of characters in each line not exceed 120. If the line of code exceeds the permitted length, wrap the line appropriately.
Exception:
#include statement can contain a long path exceeding 120 characters, but this should be avoided if possible.#ifndef XXX_YYY_ZZZ
#error Header aaaa/bbbb/cccc/abc.h must only be included after xxxx/yyyy/zzzz/xyz.h, because xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
#endif
Only spaces can be used for indentation. Four spaces are indented each time. Do not use the Tab character to indent. Currently, almost all IDEs support automatic expansion of a Tab to 4 spaces upon pressing the tab key. Please configure your IDE to do so.
K&R style When a line break is required, the left brace of a function (excluding the lambda statement) starts a new line. One space should be placed between the statement and the brace. The right brace starts a new line and nothing else is placed on the line, unless it is followed by the remaining part of the same statement, for example, "while" in the do statement, "else" or "else if" in the if statement, a comma, and a semicolon.
For example:
struct MyType { // Follow the statement to the end, and indent one space.
...
};
int Foo(int a)
{ // The left brace of the function starts a new line, nothing else is placed on the line.
if (...) {
...
} else {
...
}
}
The reasons for recommending this style are as follows:
If no function body is inside the braces, the braces can be put on the same line.
class MyClass {
public:
MyClass() : value_(0) {}
private:
int value_;
};
When a function is declared or defined, the return value type of the function should be on the same line as the function name. If the line length permits, the function parameters should be placed on the same line. Otherwise, the function parameters should be wrapped and properly aligned. The left parenthesis of a parameter list should always be on the same line as the function name. The right parenthesis always follows the last parameter.
The following is an example of line breaks:
ReturnType FunctionName(ArgType paramName1, ArgType paramName2) // Good: All are in the same line.
{
...
}
ReturnType VeryVeryVeryLongFunctionName(ArgType paramName1, // Each added parameter starts on a new line because the line length limit is exceeded.
ArgType paramName2, // Good: aligned with the previous parameter.
ArgType paramName3)
{
...
}
ReturnType LongFunctionName(ArgType paramName1, ArgType paramName2, // Parameters are wrapped because the line length limit is exceeded.
ArgType paramName3, ArgType paramName4, ArgType paramName5) // Good: After the line break, 4 spaces are used for indentation.
{
...
}
ReturnType ReallyReallyReallyReallyLongFunctionName( // The line length cannot accommodate even the first parameter, and a line break is required.
ArgType paramName1, ArgType paramName2, ArgType paramName3) // Good: After the line break, 4 spaces are used for indentation.
{
...
}
A function call parameter list should be placed on one line. When the parameter list exceeds the line length and requires a line break, the parameters should be properly aligned. The left parenthesis always follows the function name, and the right parenthesis always follows the last parameter.
The following are examples of proper line breaks:
ReturnType result = FunctionName(paramName1, paramName2); // Good: All function parameters are on one line.
ReturnType result = FunctionName(paramName1,
paramName2, // Good: aligned with the previous parameter
paramName3);
ReturnType result = FunctionName(paramName1, paramName2,
paramName3, paramName4, paramName5); // Good: Parameters are wrapped. After the line break, 4 spaces are used for indentation.
ReturnType result = VeryVeryVeryLongFunctionName( // The line length cannot accommodate even the first parameter, and a line break is required.
paramName1, paramName2, paramName3); // After the line break, 4 spaces are used for indentation.
If some of the parameters called by a function are associated with each other, you can group them for better understanding.
// Good: The parameters in each line represent a group of data structures with strong correlation. They are placed on a line for ease of understanding.
int result = DealWithStructureLikeParams(left.x, left.y, // A group of related parameters.
right.x, right.y); // Another group of related parameters.
We require that all if statements use braces, even if there is only one statement.
Reasons:
if (objectIsNotExist) { // Good: Braces are added to a single-line conditional statement.
return CreateNewObject();
}
If there are multiple branches in a conditional statement, they should be placed on separate lines.
Good example:
if (someConditions) {
DoSomething();
...
} else { // Good: Put the if and else keywords on separate lines.
...
}
Bad example:
if (someConditions) { ... } else { ... } // Bad: The if and else keywords are put on the same line.
Similar to if statements, we require that the for and while loop statements contain braces, even if the loop body is empty or there is only one loop statement.
for (int i = 0; i < someRange; i++) { // Good: Braces are used.
DoSomething();
}
while (condition) {} // Good: The while loop body is empty. Braces should be used.
while (condition) {
continue; // Good: The continue keyword highlights the end of the empty loop. Braces should be used.
}
Bad example:
for (int i = 0; i < someRange; i++)
DoSomething(); // Bad: Braces are mandatory.
while (someCondition) ; // Bad: Using a semicolon here will make people misunderstand that it is a part of the while statement and not the end to it.
The indentation style of the switch statement is as follows:
switch (var) {
case 0: // Good: Indented
DoSomething1(); // Good: Indented
break;
case 1: { // Good: Braces are added.
DoSomething2();
break;
}
default:
break;
}
switch (var) {
case 0: // Bad: case is not indented.
DoSomething();
break;
default: // Bad: default is not indented.
break;
}
A long expression that does not meet the line length requirement must be wrapped appropriately. Generally, the expression is wrapped at an operator of a lower priority or a connector, and the operator or connector is placed at the end of the line. Placing these at the end of a line indicates that the operation is to be continued on the next line. For example:
// Assume that the first line exceeds the length limit.
if (currentValue > threshold && // Good: After the line break, the logical-AND operators are placed at the end of the line.
someConditionsion) {
DoSomething();
...
}
int result = reallyReallyLongVariableName1 + // Good
reallyReallyLongVariableName2;
After an expression is wrapped, ensure that the lines are aligned appropriately or indented with 4 spaces. See the following example.
int sum = longVaribleName1 + longVaribleName2 + longVaribleName3 +
longVaribleName4 + longVaribleName5 + longVaribleName6; // Good: indented with 4 spaces
int sum = longVaribleName1 + longVaribleName2 + longVaribleName3 +
longVaribleName4 + longVaribleName5 + longVaribleName6; // Good: The lines are aligned.
Each line should have only one variable initialization statement. It is easier to read and understand.
int maxCount = 10;
bool isCompleted = false;
Bad example:
int maxCount = 10; bool isCompleted = false; // Bad: Multiple variable initialization statements must be separated on different lines. Each variable initialization statement occupies one line.
int x, y = 0; // Bad: Multiple variable definitions must be separated on different lines. Each definition occupies one line.
int pointX;
int pointY;
...
pointX = 1; pointY = 2; // Bad: Multiple variable assignment statements must be separated on different lines.
Exception: Multiple variables can be declared and initialized in the for loop header, if initialization statement (C++17), and structured binding statement (C++17). Multiple variable declarations in these statements have strong associations. Forcible division into multiple lines may cause problems such as scope inconsistency and separation of declaration from initialization.
Initialization is applicable to structs, unions, and arrays.
If a structure or array initialization list is wrapped, the line after the break is indented with four spaces. Choose the wrap location and alignment style for best comprehension.
const int rank[] = {
16, 16, 16, 16, 32, 32, 32, 32,
64, 64, 64, 64, 32, 32, 32, 32
};
* follows a variable name or type. There can be only one space to the side of it.Pointer naming: There can be only one space next to *.
int* p = NULL; // Good
int *p = NULL; // Good
int*p = NULL; // Bad
int * p = NULL; // Bad
Exception: When a variable is modified by const or restrict, * cannot follow the variable or type.
const char * const VERSION = "V100";
& follows a variable name or type. There can be only one space to the side of it.Reference naming: There can be only one space around &.
int i = 8;
int& p = i; // Good
int &p = i; // Good
int*& rp = pi; // Good: The reference type `*&` follows the type.
int *&rp = pi; // Good: The reference type `*&` follows the variable name.
int* &rp = pi; // Good: The pointer type `*` follows the type and the eference type `&` follows the variable name.
int & p = i; // Bad
int&p = i; // Bad
The number sign (#) that starts a preprocessor directive must be at the beginning of the line even through the preprocessor directive is inside a function.
#if defined(__x86_64__) && defined(__GCC_HAVE_SYNC_COMPARE_AND_SWAP_16) // Good: "#" is at the beginning of the line.
#define ATOMIC_X86_HAS_CMPXCHG16B 1 // Good: "#" is at the beginning of the line.
#else
#define ATOMIC_X86_HAS_CMPXCHG16B 0
#endif
int FunctionName()
{
if (someThingError) {
...
#ifdef HAS_SYSLOG // Good: Even in the function body, "#" is at the beginning of the line.
WriteToSysLog();
#else
WriteToFileLog();
#endif
}
}
The nested preprocessor directives starting with # can be indented and aligned based on a standardized style.
#if defined(__x86_64__) && defined(__GCC_HAVE_SYNC_COMPARE_AND_SWAP_16)
#define ATOMIC_X86_HAS_CMPXCHG16B 1 // Good: wrapped for easier comprehension
#else
#define ATOMIC_X86_HAS_CMPXCHG16B 0
#endif
Horizontal spaces are used to highlight keywords and important information. Spaces are not allowed at the end of each code line. The general rules are as follows:
In normal cases:
void Foo(int b) { // Good: A space is added before the left brace.
int i = 0; // Good: During variable initialization, there should be spaces before and after =. Do not leave a space before the semicolon.
int buf[BUF_SIZE] = {0}; // Good: Spaces are not added in braces.
Function definition and call:
int result = Foo(arg1,arg2);
^ // Bad: A space should be added after the comma.
int result = Foo( arg1, arg2 );
^ ^ // Bad: Spaces should not be added after the left parenthesis or before the right parenthesis.
Pointer and Address Operator
x = *p; // Good: There is no space between the operator * and the pointer p.
p = &x; // Good: There is no space between the operator & and the variable x.
x = r.y; // Good: When a member variable is accessed through the operator (.), no space is added.
x = r->y; // Good: When a member variable is accessed through the operator (->), no space is added.
Other Operators:
x = 0; // Good: There is a space before and after the assignment operator (=).
x = -5; // Good: There is no space between the minus sign (–) and the number.
++x; //Good: Do not add spaces between a prefix or suffix increment (++) or decrement (--) operator and a variable..
x--;
if (x && !y) // Good: There is a space before and after the Boolean operator. There is no space between the ! operator and the variable.
v = w * x + y / z; // Good: There is a space before and after the binary operator.
v = w * (x + z); // Good: There is no space before or after the expression in the parentheses.
int a = (x < y) ? x : y; // Good: Ternary operator. There is a space before and after ? and :
Loops and Conditional Statements:
if (condition) { // Good: There is a space between the if keyword and the left parenthesis, and no space before or after the conditional statement in the parentheses.
...
} else { // Good: There is a space between the else keyword and the left brace.
...
}
while (conditions) {} // Good: There is a space between the while keyword and the left parenthesis. There is no space before or after the conditional statement in the parentheses.
for (int i = 0; i < someRange; ++i) { // Good: There is a space between the for keyword and the left parenthesis, and after the semicolon.
...
}
switch (condition) { // Good: There is a space after the switch keyword.
case 0: // Good: There is no space between the case condition and the colon.
...
break;
...
default:
...
break;
}
Templates and Conversions
// Angle brackets (< and >) are not adjacent to space. There is no space before < or between > and (.
vector<string> x;
y = static_cast<char*>(x);
// There can be a space between the type and the pointer operator. Keep the spacing style consistent.
vector<char *> x;
Scope Operators
std::cout; // Good: Namespace access. Do not leave spaces.
int MyClass::GetValue() const {} // Good: Do not leave spaces in the definition of member functions.
Colons
// Scenarios when space is required
// Good: // Add a space before or after the colon in a derived class definition.
class Sub : public Base {
};
// Add a space before or after the colon in the initialization list of a constructor function.
MyClass::MyClass(int var) : someVar_(var)
{
DoSomething();
}
// Add a space before or after the colon in a bit-field.
struct XX {
char a : 4;
char b : 5;
char c : 4;
};
// Scenarios when space is not required
// Good: // No space is added before or after the colon next to a class access permission (public or private).
class MyClass {
public:
MyClass(int var);
private:
int someVar_;
};
// No space is added before or after the colon in a switch statement.
switch (value)
{
case 1:
DoSomething();
break;
default:
break;
}
Note: Currently, all IDEs support automatic deletion of spaces at the end of a line. Please configure your IDE correctly.
There must be as few blank lines as possible so that more code can be displayed for easy reading. Recommendations:
int Foo()
{
...
}
int bar() {// Bad: More than one blank lines are used between two function definitions.
{
...
}
if (...) {
// Bad: Do not add blank lines on the first and last lines of a code block.
...
// Bad: Do not add blank lines on the first and last lines of a code block.
}
int Foo(...)
{
// Bad: Do not add blank lines before the first statement in a function body.
...
}
class MyClass : public BaseClass {
public: // Not indented.
MyClass(); // Indented with 4 spaces.
explicit MyClass(int var);
~MyClass() {}
void SomeFunction();
void SomeFunctionThatDoesNothing()
{
}
void SetVar(int var) { someVar_ = var; }
int GetVar() const { return someVar_; }
private:
bool SomeInternalFunction();
int someVar_;
int someOtherVar_;
};
In each part, it is recommended that similar statements be put together and in the following order: Type (including typedef, using, nested structs and classes), Constant, Factory Function, Constructor, Assignment Operator, Destructor, Other Member Function, and Data Member
// If all variables can be placed on the same line
MyClass::MyClass(int var) : someVar_(var)
{
DoSomething();
}
// If the variables cannot be placed on the same line
// Wrapped at the colon and indented with four spaces
MyClass::MyClass(int var)
: someVar_(var), someOtherVar_(var + 1) // Good: Add a space after the comma.
{
DoSomething();
}
// If an initialization list needs to be placed in multiple lines, put each member on a separate line and align between lines.
MyClass::MyClass(int var)
someVar(var), // Four spaces of indentation.
someOtherVar_(var + 1)
{
DoSomething();
}
Generally, clear architecture and good naming are recommended to improve code readability, and comments are provided only when necessary.
Comments are used to help readers quickly understand code. Therefore, comments should be provided for the sake of readers.
Comments must be concise, clear, and unambiguous, ensuring that information is complete and not redundant.
Comments are as important as code.
When writing a comment, you need to step into the reader's shoes and use comments to express what the reader really needs. Comments are used to express the function and intention of code, rather than repeating code.
When modifying the code, ensure that the comments are consistent with the modified code. It is not polite to modify only code and keep the old comments, which will undermine the consistency between code and comments, and may confuse or even mislead readers.
Comments should be made in English.
In C++ code, both /* */ and // can be used for commenting.
Comments can be classified into different types, such as file header comments, function header comments, and code comments. This is based on their purposes and positions.
Comments of the same type must keep a consistent style.
Note: Example code in this document uses comments in the // format only to better describe the rules and recommendations. This does not mean this comment format is better.
/*
Not all functions need function header comments. For information that cannot be described by function signatures, add function header comments.
Function header comments are placed above the function declaration or definition. Use one of the following styles: Use '//' to start the function header.
// Single-line function header
int Func1(void);
// Multi-line function header
// Second line
int Func2(void);
Use /* */ to start the function header.
/* Single-line function header */
int Func1(void);
/*
* Another single-line function header
*/
int Func2(void);
/*
* Multi-line function header
* Second line
*/
int Func3(void);
Use function names to describe functions, and add function header comments if necessary. Do not write useless or redundant function headers. Do not write empty function headers with no content.
The function header comment content will depend on the function and includes but is not limited to: a function description, return value, performance constraints, usage comments, memory conventions, algorithm implementation, reentering requirements. In the function interface declaration in the external header file, the function header comment should clearly describe important and useful information.
Good example:
/*
* The number of written bytes is returned. If -1 is returned, the write operation failed.
* Note that the memory buffer should be released by the caller.
*/
int WriteString(const char *buf, int len);
Bad example:
/*
* Function name: WriteString
* Function: Write a character string.
* Parameters:
* Return value:
*/
int WriteString(const char *buf, int len);
Problems:
Comments placed above code should be indented the same as that of the code. Use one of the following styles: Use "//".
// Single-line comment
DoSomething();
// Multi-line comment
// Second line
DoSomething();
Use /* */.
/* Single-line comment */
DoSomething();
/*
* Multi-line comment in another mode
* Second line
*/
DoSomething();
Leave at least one space between the code and the comment on the right. It is recommended that no more than four spaces be left. You can use the Tab key to indent 1–4 spaces.
Select and use one of the following styles:
int foo = 100; // Comment on the right
int bar = 200; /* Comment on the right */
It is more appealing sometimes when the comment is placed on the right of code and the comments and code are aligned vertically. After the alignment, ensure that the comment is 1–4 spaces away from the widest line of code. For example:
const int A_CONST = 100; /* Related comments of the same type can be aligned vertically. */
const int ANOTHER_CONST = 200; /* Leave spaces after code to align comments vertically. */
When the comment on the right exceeds the line width, consider placing the comment above the code.
Code that is commented out cannot be maintained. If you attempt to restore the code, it is very likely to introduce ignorable defects. The correct method is to delete unnecessary code directly. If necessary, consider porting or rewriting the code.
Here, commenting out refers to the removal of code from compilation without actually deleting it. This is done by using /* */, //, #if 0, #ifdef NEVER_DEFINED, and so on.
TODO/TBD comments are used to describe required improvements and supplements. FIXME comments are used to describe defects that need fixing. They should have a standardized style, which facilitates text search. For example:
// TODO(<author-name>): XX
// FIXME: XX
A header file is an external interface of a module or file. The design of a header file shows most of the system design. The interface declaration for most functions is more suitable placed in the header file, but implementation (except inline functions) cannot be placed in the header file. Functions, macros, enumerations, and structure definitions that need to be used in .cpp files cannot be placed in the header file. The header responsibility should be simple. An overly complex header file will make dependencies complex and cause long compilation times.
Generally, each .cpp file has a corresponding .h file. This .cpp file is used to store the function declarations, macro definitions, and class definitions that are to be exposed. If a .cpp file does not need to open any interface externally, it should not exist. Exception: __An entry point (for example, the file where the main function is located), unit tests, and dynamic libraries __
For example:
// Foo.h
#ifndef FOO_H
#define FOO_H
class Foo {
public:
Foo();
void Fun();
private:
int value_;
};
#endif
// Foo.cpp
#include "Foo.h"
namespace { // Good: The declaration of the internal function is placed in the header of the .cpp file, and has been limited to the unnamed namespace or static scope.
void Bar()
{
}
}
...
void Foo::Fun()
{
Bar();
}
An example of cyclic dependency (also known as circular dependency) is: a.h contains b.h, b.h contains c.h, and c.h contains a.h. If any of these header files is modified, all code containing a.h, b.h, and c.h needs to be recompiled.
For a unidirectional dependency, for example if: a.h contains b.h, b.h contains c.h, and c.h does not contain any header file, modifying a.h does not mean that we need to recompile the source code for b.h or c.h.
The cyclic dependency of header files reflects an obviously unreasonable architecture design, which can be avoided through optimization.
To prevent header files from being included multiple times, all header files should be protected by #define. Do not use #pragma once.
When defining a protection character, comply with the following rules:
Example: Assume that the timer.h file of the timer module is in the timer/include/timer.h directory. Perform the following operations to safeguard the timer.h file:
#ifndef TIMER_INCLUDE_TIMER_H
#define TIMER_INCLUDE_TIMER_H
...
#endif
Interfaces provided by other modules or files can be used only by including header files. Using external function interfaces and variables in extern declaration mode may cause inconsistency between declarations and definitions when external interfaces are changed. In addition, this kind of implicit dependency may cause architecture corruption.
Cases that do not comply with specifications:
// a.cpp content
extern int Fun(); // Bad: Use external functions in extern mode.
void Bar()
{
int i = Fun();
...
}
// b.cpp content
int Fun()
{
// Do something
}
Should be changed to:
// a.cpp content
#include "b.h" // Good: Use the interface provided by other .cpp by including its corresponding header file.
void Bar()
{
int i = Fun();
...
}
// b.h content
int Fun();
// b.cpp content
int Fun()
{
// Do something
}
In some scenarios, if internal functions need to be referenced with no intrusion to the code, the extern declaration mode can be used. For example: When performing unit testing on an internal function, you can use the extern declaration to reference the tested function. When a function needs to be stubbed or patched, the function can be declared using extern.
If a header file is included in extern "C", extern "C" may be nested. Some compilers restrict the nesting of extern "C". If there are too many nested layers, compilation errors may occur.
When C and C++ programmings are used together and if extern "C" includes a header file, the original intent behind the header file may be hindered. For example, when the link specifications are modified incorrectly.
For example, assume that there are two header files a.h and b.h.
// a.h content
...
#ifdef __cplusplus
void Foo(int);
#define A(value) Foo(value)
#else
void A(int)
#endif
// b.h content
...
#ifdef __cplusplus
extern "C" {
#endif
#include "a.h"
void B();
#ifdef __cplusplus
}
#endif
Using the C++ preprocessor to expand b.h, the following information is displayed:
extern "C" {
void Foo(int);
void B();
}
According to the author of a.h, the function Foo is a C++ free function following the "C++" link specification.
However, because #include "a.h" is placed inside extern "C" in b.h, the link specification of function Foo is changed incorrectly.
Exception:
In the C++ compilation environment, if you want to reference the header file of pure C, the C header files should not contain extern "C". The non-intrusive approach is to include the C header file in extern "C".
#include instead of a forward declaration to include header files.A forward declaration is for the declaration of classes, functions, and templates and is not meant for its definition.
#include statements force the compiler to expand more files and process more input.std:: is seen as undefined behavior (as specified in the C++ 11 standard specification).#include is needed. In some scenarios, replacing #include with a forward declaration may cause unexpected results.Therefore, we should avoid using forward declarations as much as possible. Instead, we use the #include statement to include a header file and ensure dependency.
In the C++ 2003 standard, using static to modify the external availability of functions and variables was marked as deprecated. Therefore, unnamed namespaces are the recommended method.
Main Reasons:
Do not use unnamed namespaces or static in header files.
// Foo.cpp
namespace {
const int MAX_COUNT = 20;
void InternalFun(){};
}
void Foo::Fun()
{
int i = MAX_COUNT;
InternalFun();
}
Note: Using "using" to import namespace will affect any subsequent code and may cause symbol conflicts. Example:
// Header file a.h
namespace NamespaceA {
int Fun(int);
}
// Header file b.h
namespace NamespaceB {
int Fun(int);
}
using namespace NamespaceB;
void G()
{
Fun(1);
}
// Source code a.cpp
#include "a.h"
using namespace NamespaceA;
#include "b.h"
void main()
{
G(); // "using namespace NamespaceA" before #include "b.h", will cause conflicts when calling NamespaceA::Fun and NamespaceB::Fun.
}
Using "using" to import a symbol or define an alias in a header file is allowed in customized namespaces of modules, but is prohibited in the global namespace.
// foo.h
#include <fancy/string>
using fancy::string; // Bad: It is prohibited to import symbols to the global namespace.
namespace Foo {
using fancy::string; // Good: Symbols can be imported in customized namespaces of modules.
using MyVector = fancy::vector; // Good: In C++11, aliases can be defined in customized namespaces.
}
Note: Placing non-member functions in a namespace avoids polluting the global scope. Do not use "class + static member function" to simply manage global functions. If a global function is closely tied to a class, it can be used as a static member function of the class.
If you need to define some global functions for a .cpp file, use unnamed namespaces for management.
namespace MyNamespace {
int Add(int a, int b);
}
class File {
public:
static File CreateTempFile(const std::string& fileName);
};
Note: Placing global constants in a namespace avoids polluting the global scope. Do not use "class + static member constant" to simply manage global constants. If a global constant is closely tied to a class, it can be used as a static member constant of the class.
If you need to define some global constants only for a .cpp file, use unnamed namespaces for management.
namespace MyNamespace {
const int MAX_SIZE = 100;
}
class File {
public:
static const std::string SEPARATOR;
};
Note: Global variables can be modified and read, which results in data coupling between production code and the global variables.
int g_counter = 0;
// a.cpp
g_counter++;
// b.cpp
g_counter++;
// c.cpp
cout << g_counter << endl;
Singleton
class Counter {
public:
static Counter& GetInstance()
{
static Counter counter;
return counter;
} // Simple example of a singleton implementation
void Increase()
{
value_++;
}
void Print() const
{
std::cout << value_ << std::endl;
}
private:
Counter() : value_(0) {}
private:
int value_;
};
// a.cpp
Counter::GetInstance().Increase();
// b.cpp
Counter::GetInstance().Increase();
// c.cpp
Counter::GetInstance().Print();
After the singleton is implemented, there is a unique global instance, which can functions as a global variable. However, the singleton provides better encapsulation.
Exception: In some cases, the scope of a global variable is contained inside a module. Multiple instances of the same global variable may exist, and each module holds one copy. In this case, a singleton cannot be used as it is limited to one instance.
Constructors, copy/move constructors, copy/move assignment operators, and destructors provide lifetime management methods for objects.
X()
X(const X&)
operator=(const X&)
X (X&&) Provided in versions later than C++ 11.operator=(X&&) Provided in versions later than C++ 11.~X()
Note: If a class has members but no constructor and a default constructor is defined, the compiler will automatically generate a constructor, but it will not initialize member variables. The content of each object is uncertain.
Exception:
Example: The following code has no constructor, and private data members cannot be initialized:
class Message {
public:
void ProcessOutMsg()
{
//…
}
private:
unsigned int msgID_;
unsigned int msgLength_;
unsigned char* msgBuffer_;
std::string someIdentifier_;
};
Message message; // The message member is not initialized.
message.ProcessOutMsg(); // Potential risks exist in subsequent use.
// Therefore, it is necessary to define a default constructor as follows:
class Message {
public:
Message() : msgID_(0), msgLength_(0), msgBuffer_(NULL)
{
}
void ProcessOutMsg()
{
// …
}
private:
unsigned int msgID_;
unsigned int msgLength_;
unsigned char* msgBuffer_;
std::string someIdentifier; // The member variable has a default constructor. Therefore, explicit initialization is not required.
};
Note: Initialization during declaration (C++11) is preferred because initialized values of member variables can be easily understood. If initialized values of certain member variables are relevant to constructors, or C++ 11 is not supported, the constructor initialization list is used preferentially to initialize these member variables. Compared with the assignment statements in constructors, code of the constructor initialization list is simpler and has higher performance, and can be used to initialize constant and reference members.
class Message {
public:
Message() : msgLength(0) { // Good: The constructor initialization list is preferred.
{
msgBuffer = NULL; // Bad: Values cannot be assigned in constructors.
}
private:
unsigned int msgID{0}; // Good: Used in C++11.
unsigned int msgLength_;
unsigned char* msgBuffer_;
};
Note: If a single-parameter constructor is not declared as explicit, it will become an implicit conversion function. Example:
class Foo {
public:
explicit Foo(const string& name): name_(name)
{
}
private:
string name_;
};
void ProcessFoo(const Foo& foo){}
int main(void)
{
std::string test = "test";
ProcessFoo(test); // Compiling failed.
return 0;
}
The preceding code fails to be compiled because the parameter required by ProcessFoo is of the Foo type, which mismatch with the input string type.
If the explicit keyword of the Foo constructor is removed, implicit conversion is triggered and a temporary Foo object is generated when ProcessFoo is called with the string parameter. Usually, this implicit conversion is confusing and bugs are apt to be hidden, due to unexpected type conversion. Therefore, single-parameter constructors require explicit declaration.
Note: If users do not define it, the compiler will generate copy constructors and copy assignment operators, move constructors and move assignment operators (move semantic functions will be available in versions later than C++ 11). If we do not use copy constructors or copy assignment operators, explicitly delete them.
class Foo {
private:
Foo(const Foo&);
Foo& operator=(const Foo&);
};
Both copy constructors and copy assignment operators provide copy semantics. They should be implemented or hidden together.
// The copy constructor and the copy assignment operator are implemented together.
class Foo {
public:
...
Foo(const Foo&);
Foo& operator=(const Foo&);
...
};
// The copy constructor and the copy assignment operator are both set to default, as supported by C++ 11.
class Foo {
public:
Foo(const Foo&) = default;
Foo& operator=(const Foo&) = default;
};
// The copy constructor and the copy assignment operator are hidden together. You should use the delete keyword if C++11 features are available.
class Foo {
private:
Foo(const Foo&);
Foo& operator=(const Foo&);
};
The move operation is added in C++ 11. If a class is required to support the move operation, move constructors and move assignment operators need to be implemented.
Both move constructors and move assignment operators provide move semantics. They should be implemented or hidden together.
// The copy constructor and the copy assignment operator are implemented together.
class Foo {
public:
...
Foo(Foo&&);
Foo& operator=(Foo&&);
...
};
// The copy constructor and the copy assignment operator are both set to default, as supported by C++ 11.
class Foo {
public:
Foo(Foo&&) = default;
Foo& operator=(Foo&&) = default;
};
// The copy constructor and the copy assignment operator are hidden together. You should use the delete keyword if C++11 features are available.
class Foo {
public:
Foo(Foo&&) = delete;
Foo& operator=(Foo&&) = delete;
};
Note: Calling a virtual function of the current object in a constructor or destructor will cause behaviors of non-polymorphism. In C++, a base class constructs only one complete object at a time.
Example: Base indicates the base class, and Sub indicates the derived class.
class Base {
public:
Base();
virtual void Log() = 0; // Different derived classes call different log files.
};
Base::Base() // Base class constructor
{
Log(); // Call the virtual function log.
}
class Sub : public Base {
public:
virtual void Log();
};
When running the following statement:
Sub sub;
The constructor of the derived class is executed first. However, the constructor of the base class is called first. Because the constructor of the base class calls the virtual function log, the log is in the base class version. The derived class is constructed only after the base class is constructed. As a result, behaviors of non-polymorphism are caused.
This also applies to destructors.
Note: Destructors of the derived class can be called during polymorphism invocation only when destructors of the base class are virtual.
Example: There will be memory leak if destructors of the base class are not declared as virtual.
class Base {
public:
virtual std::string getVersion() = 0;
~Base()
{
std::cout << "~Base" << std::endl;
}
};
class Sub : public Base {
public:
Sub() : numbers_(NULL)
{
}
~Sub()
{
delete[] numbers_;
std::cout << "~Sub" << std::endl;
}
int Init()
{
const size_t numberCount = 100;
numbers_ = new (std::nothrow) int[numberCount];
if (numbers_ == NULL) {
return -1;
}
...
}
std::string getVersion()
{
return std::string("hello!");
}
private:
int* numbers_;
};
int main(int argc, char* args[])
{
Base* b = new Sub();
delete b;
return 0;
}
Because destructors of the base class are not declared as virtual, only destructors of the base class are called when an object is destroyed. Destructors of the derived class Sub are not called. As a result, a memory leak occurs.
Note: In C++, virtual functions are dynamically bound, but the default parameters of functions are statically bound during compilation. This means that the function you finally execute is a virtual function that is defined in the derived class but uses the default parameter value in the base class. To avoid confusion and other problems caused by inconsistent default parameter declarations during overriding of virtual functions, it is prohibited to declare default parameter values for all virtual functions. Example: The default value of parameter "text" of the virtual function "Display" is determined at compilation time instead of runtime, which does not fit with polymorphism.
class Base {
public:
virtual void Display(const std::string& text = "Base!")
{
std::cout << text << std::endl;
}
virtual ~Base(){}
};
class Sub : public Base {
public:
virtual void Display(const std::string& text = "Sub!")
{
std::cout << text << std::endl;
}
virtual ~Sub(){}
};
int main()
{
Base* base = new Sub();
Sub* sub = new Sub();
...
base->Display(); // The program output is as follows: Base! The expected output is as follows: Sub!
sub->Display(); // The program output is as follows: Sub!
delete base;
delete sub;
return 0;
};
Note: Non-virtual functions cannot be dynamically bound (only virtual functions can be dynamically bound). You can obtain the correct result by operating on the pointer of the base class.
Example:
class Base {
public:
void Fun();
};
class Sub : public Base {
public:
void Fun();
};
Sub* sub = new Sub();
Base* base = sub;
sub->Fun(); // Call Fun of the derived class.
base->Fun(); // Call Fun of the base class.
//...
In the actual development process, multiple inheritance is seldom used because the following typical problems may occur:
Multiple inheritance has the following advantages: Multiple inheritance provides a simpler method for assembling and reusing multiple interfaces or classes.
Therefore, multiple inheritance can be used only in the following cases:
If a class requires multiple interfaces, combine multiple separated interfaces by using multiple inheritance. This is similar to the Traits mixin of the Scala language.
class Role1 {};
class Role2 {};
class Role3 {};
class Object1 : public Role1, public Role2 {
// ...
};
class Object2 : public Role2, public Role3 {
// ...
};
The C++ standard library has a similar implementation example:
class basic_istream {};
class basic_ostream {};
class basic_iostream : public basic_istream, public basic_ostream {
};
Overload operators should be used when there are sufficient reasons, and they do not change the original perception of the operators. For example, do not use the plus sign (+) to perform subtraction. Operator overloading can make code more intuitive but has some disadvantages:
A function should be displayed on one screen (no longer than 50 lines). It should do only one thing, and do it well.
Long functions often mean that the functions are too complex to implement in more than one function, or overly detailed but not further abstracted.
Exception: Some algorithms may be longer than 50 lines due to algorithm convergence and functional comprehensiveness.
Even if a long function works very well now, once someone modifies it, new problems may occur. It might even cause bugs that are difficult to find. It is recommended that you split a long function into several functions that are simpler and easier to manage, facilitating comprehension and modification.
Note: An inline function has the same characteristics of a normal function. The difference between an inline function and a normal function lies in the processing of function calls. When a general function is called, the program execution right is transferred to the called function, and then returned to the function that calls it. When an inline function is called, the invocation expression is replaced with an inline function body.
Inline functions are only suitable for small functions with only 1-10 lines. For a large function that contains many statements, the function call and return overheads are relatively trivial and do not need the help of an inline function. Most compilers may abandon the inline mode and use the common method to call the function.
If an inline function contains complex control structures, such as loop, branch (switch), and try-catch statements, the compiler may regard the function as a common function. Virtual functions and recursive functions cannot be used as inline functions.
Note: A reference is more secure than a pointer because it is not empty and does not point to other targets. Using a reference stops the need to check for illegal null pointers.
If a product is being developed for an older platform, the processing used by the old platform is preferred. Use const to avoid parameter modification, so that readers can clearly know that a parameter is not going to be modified. This greatly enhances code readability.
Exception: When the input parameter is an array with an unknown compile-time length, you can use a pointer instead of a reference.
While different languages have their own views on strong typing and weak typing, it is generally believed that C and C++ are strongly typed languages. Since we use such a strongly typed language, we should keep to this style. An advantage of this is the compiler can find type mismatch problems at the compilation stage.
Using strong typing helps the compiler find more errors for us. Pay attention to the usage of the FooListAddNode function in the following code:
struct FooNode {
struct List link;
int foo;
};
struct BarNode {
struct List link;
int bar;
}
void FooListAddNode(void *node) // Bad: Here, the void * type is used to transfer parameters.
{
FooNode *foo = (FooNode *)node;
ListAppend(&g_FooList, &foo->link);
}
void MakeTheList()
{
FooNode *foo = NULL;
BarNode *bar = NULL;
...
FooListAddNode(bar); // Wrong: In this example, the foo parameter was supposed to be transferred, but the bar parameter is accidentally transferred instead. However, no error is reported.
}
If a function has too many parameters, it is apt to be affected by external changes, and therefore maintenance is affected. Too many function parameters will also increase the testing workload.
If a function has more than five parameters, you can:
Unchanged values are easier to understand, trace, and analyze. Therefore, use constants instead of variables as much as possible. When defining values, use const as a default.
Note: Macros are a simple text replacement that is completed in the preprocessing phase. When an error is reported, the corresponding value is reported. During tracing and debugging, the value is also displayed instead of the macro name. A macro does not support type checking and is insecure. A macro has no scope.
#define MAX_MSISDN_LEN 20 // Bad
// Use const in C++.
const int MAX_MSISDN_LEN = 20; // Good
// In versions later than C++ 11, constexpr can be used.
constexpr int MAX_MSISDN_LEN = 20;
Note: Enumerations are more secure than #define or const int. The compiler checks whether a parameter value is within the enumerated value range to avoid errors.
// Good example:
enum Week {
SUNDAY,
MONDAY,
TUESDAY,
WEDNESDAY,
THURSDAY,
FRIDAY,
SATURDAY
};
enum Color {
RED,
BLACK,
BLUE
};
void ColorizeCalendar(Week today, Color color);
ColorizeCalendar(BLUE, SUNDAY); // Compilation error. The parameter type is incorrect.
// Bad example:
const int SUNDAY = 0;
const int MONDAY = 1;
const int BLACK = 0;
const int BLUE = 1;
bool ColorizeCalendar(int today, int color);
ColorizeCalendar(BLUE, SUNDAY); // No error is reported.
When an enumeration value needs to correspond to a specific value, explicit value assignment is required during declaration. Otherwise, do not assign explicit values. This will prevent repeated assignment and reduce the maintenance workload (when adding and deleting members).
// Good example: Device ID defined in the S protocol. It is used to identify a device type.
enum DeviceType {
DEV_UNKNOWN = -1,
DEV_DSMP = 0,
DEV_ISMG = 1,
DEV_WAPPORTAL = 2
};
Do not assign explicit values when enumeration is used internally, and only for classification.
// Good example: Enumeration definition is used to identify session status in a program.
enum SessionState {
INIT,
CLOSED,
WAITING_FOR_RESPONSE
};
Try to avoid repeating enumeration values. If it is required, use the already defined enumeration values instead.
enum RTCPType {
RTCP_SR = 200,
RTCP_MIN_TYPE = RTCP_SR,
RTCP_RR = 201,
RTCP_SDES = 202,
RTCP_BYE = 203,
RTCP_APP = 204,
RTCP_RTPFB = 205,
RTCP_PSFB = 206,
RTCP_XR = 207,
RTCP_RSI = 208,
RTCP_PUBPORTS = 209,
RTCP_MAX_TYPE = RTCP_PUBPORTS
};
So-called magic numbers are numbers that are unintelligible and difficult to understand.
Some numbers can be understood based on context.
For example, the number 12 varies in different contexts.
type = 12; is not intelligible (and a magic number), but month = year * 12; can be understood, so we wouldn't really class this as a magic number.
The number 0 is often seen as a magic number. For example, status = 0; cannot truly express any status information.
Solution: Comments can be added for numbers that are used locally. For the numbers that are used multiple times, you must define them as constants and give them descriptive names.
The following cases are forbidden:
No symbol is used to explain the meaning of a number, for example, const int ZERO = 0.
The symbol name limits the value. For example, for example, const int XX_TIMER_INTERVAL_300MS = 300. Use XX_TIMER_INTERVAL_MS instead.
Note: A constant is used for only one specific function, that is, a constant cannot be used for multiple purposes.
// Good example: For protocol A and protocol B, the length of the MSISDN is 20.
const unsigned int A_MAX_MSISDN_LEN = 20;
const unsigned int B_MAX_MSISDN_LEN = 20;
// Using different namespaces:
namespace Namespace1 {
const unsigned int MAX_MSISDN_LEN = 20;
}
namespace Namespace2 {
const unsigned int MAX_MSISDN_LEN = 20;
}
Note: POD is short for Plain Old Data, which is a concept introduced in the C++ 98 standard (ISO/IEC 14882, first edition, 1998-09-01). The POD types include the original types and aggregate types such as int, char, float, double, enumeration, void, and pointer. Encapsulation and object-oriented features cannot be used (for example, user-defined constructors, assignment operators, destructors, base classes, and virtual functions).
For non-POD classes, such as class objects of non-aggregate types, virtual functions may exist. Memory layout is uncertain, and is related to the compiler. Misuse of memory copies may cause serious problems.
Even if a class of the aggregate type is directly copied and compared, and any functions hiding information or protecting data are destroyed, the memcpy_s and memset_s operations are not recommended.
For details about the POD type, see the appendix.
Note: It is a common low-level programming error that a variable is not assigned an initial value before being used. Declaring and initializing a variable just before using it will prevent this.
If all variables are declared at the beginning of a function before they are used, their scope covers the entire function, which may lead to the following problems:
Following the minimization principle of variable scopes and the principle of proximity declaration will make it easier to read code and understand variable types and initial values. In particular, use initialization to replace declaration and then assign values.
// Bad example: Declaration is separated from initialization.
string name; // The variable is not initialized in the declaration, and a default constructor is called.
name = "zhangsan"; // An assignment operator is called again. Declaration is separate from definition, which is difficult to understand.
// Good example: Declaration and initialization are together, and easy to understand.
string name("zhangsan"); // Invoke a constructor.
In an expression where the increment or decrement operations are performed on a variable, the variable cannot be referenced again. The result of a second referencing is not explicitly defined in C++ standards. The results in different compilers or different versions of a compiler may be different. Therefore, it is recommended that an undefined operation sequence not be assumed.
Note that the problem of operation sequence cannot be solved by using parentheses because this is not a priority problem.
Example:
x = b[i] + i++; // Bad: Whether the position of b[i] is before or after the i++ is unclear.
The increment or decrement operation should be placed in a single line:
x = b[i] + i;
i++; // Good: i++ is placed in a single line.
Function parameter
Func(i++, i); // Bad: Whether the increment operation happens for the second parameter is unclear
Good example:
i++; // Good: i++ is placed in a single line.
x = Func(i, i);
In most cases, a switch statement requires a default branch to ensure that there is a default action when the case tag is missing for a processed value.
Exception: If the switch condition variables are enumerated and the case branch covers all values, the default branch is redundant. Because modern compilers can check which case branches are missing in the switch statement and provide an advanced warning.
enum Color {
RED = 0,
BLUE
};
// The switch condition variables are enumerated. Therefore, you do not need to add a default branch.
switch (color) {
case RED:
DoRedThing();
break;
case BLUE:
DoBlueThing();
...
break;
}
When a variable is compared with a constant, placing the constant on the left, for example, if (MAX == v), does not comply with standard reading habits and is more difficult to understand. The constant should be placed on the right. The expression is written as follows:
if (value == MAX) {
}
if (value < MAX) {
}
There are special cases: for example, if the expression if (MIN < value && value < MAX) is used to describe a range, the first half, as a constant, should be placed on the left.
You do not need to worry about writing '==' as '=' because a compilation alarm will be generated for if (value = MAX) and an error will be reported by other static check tools. Use these tools to solve such writing errors and ensure that that code is readable.
Use parentheses to specify the operator precedence. This will prevent program errors due to the inconsistency between default priority and the intended design. At the same time, it makes the code clearer and more readable. However, too many parentheses muddy the code, reducing readability. The following is a recommendation on their correct usage.
x = a + b + c; /* The operator does not change, and thus parentheses are not required. */
x = Foo(a + b, c); /* The operator does not change, and thus parentheses are not required. */
x = 1 << (2 + 3); /* More than one operator is used and thus parentheses are required. */
x = a + (b / 5); /* More than one operator is used and thus parentheses are required. */
x = (a == b) ? a : (a – b); /* More than one operator is used and thus parentheses are required. */
Do not use type branches to customize behaviors. Type branch customization behavior is prone to errors and is an obvious sign of attempting to compile C code using C++. This is very inflexible technology. If you forget to modify all branches when adding a new type to a compiler, you will not be notified. Use templates and virtual functions to let the type define itself rather than letting the calling side determine behavior.
It is recommended that type casting be avoided. We should consider the data type in the code design instead of overusing type casting to solve type conflicts. When designing a basic type, consider the following:
However, we cannot prohibit the use of type casting because the C++ language is a machine-oriented programming language, involving pointer addresses, and we interact with various third-party or underlying APIs. Their type design may not be reasonable and type casting tends to occur in the adaptation process.
Exception: When calling a function, if we do not want to process the result of the function, first consider whether this is your best choice. If you do not want to process the return value of the function, cast it to void.
Note:
The type casting provided by C++ is more targeted, easy to read, and more secure than the C style. C++ provides the following types of casting:
dynamic_cast: Used to inherit the downstream transformation of the system. dynamic_cast has the type check function. Design the base class and derived class to avoid using dynamic_cast for casting.static_cast: Similar to the C style casting, which can be used to convert a value, or to convert the pointer or reference of a derived class into a base class pointer or reference. This casting is often used to eliminate type ambiguity brought on by multiple inheritance, which is relatively safe. If it is a pure arithmetic conversion, use the braces as stated in the following text.reinterpret_cast: Used to convert irrelevant types. reinterpret_cast forces the compiler to reinterpret the memory of a certain type of objects into another type, which is an unsafe conversion. It is recommended that reinterpret_cast be used as little as possible.const_cast: Used to remove the const attribute of an object so that the object can be modified. You are advised to use const_cast as little as possible. double d{ someFloat };
int64_t i{ someInt32 };
dynamic_cast.dynamic_cast depends on the RTTI of C++ so that the programmer can identify the type of the object in C++ at run time.dynamic_cast indicates that a problem has occurred in the design of the base class and derived class.The derived class destroys the contract of the base class and it is necessary to use dynamic_cast to convert the class to a subclass for special processing. In this case, it is more desirable to improve the design of the class, instead of using dynamic_cast to solve the problem.reinterpret_cast.Note: reinterpret_cast is used to convert irrelevant types. Trying to use reinterpret_cast to force a type to another type destroys the security and reliability of the type and is an insecure casting method. Avoid casting between completely different types.
const_cast.Note: The const_cast command is used to remove the const and volatile properties of an object.
The action of using a pointer or reference after the const_cast conversion to modify the const property of an object is undefined.
// Bad example:
const int i = 1024;
int* p = const_cast<int*>(&i);
*p = 2048; // The action is undefined.
// Bad example:
class Foo {
public:
Foo() : i(3) {}
void Fun(int v)
{
i = v;
}
private:
int i;
};
int main(void)
{
const Foo f;
Foo* p = const_cast<Foo*>(&f);
p->Fun(8); // The action is undefined.
}
Note: To delete a single object, use delete; to delete an array object, use delete []. The reasons are as follows:
If the usage of new and delete does not match this format, the results are unknown. For a non-class type, new and delete will not call the constructor or destructor.
Bad example:
const int MAX_ARRAY_SIZE = 100;
int* numberArray = new int[MAX_ARRAY_SIZE];
...
delete numberArray;
numberArray = NULL;
Good example:
const int MAX_ARRAY_SIZE = 100;
int* numberArray = new int[MAX_ARRAY_SIZE];
...
delete[] numberArray;
numberArray = NULL;
Note: RAII is an acronym for Resource Acquisition Is Initialization. It is a simple technology that controls program resources (such as memory, file handle, network connections, and mutexes) by using the object lifecycle.
The common practice is as follows: When the object is constructed, the resource is obtained, and the access to the resource is controlled so that the resource is always valid in the life cycle of the object. Finally, the resource is released when the object is destructed. This approach has two advantages:
In the following example, RAII removes the need for explicit release of mutex resources.
class LockGuard {
public:
LockGuard(const LockType& lockType): lock_(lockType)
{
lock_.Aquire();
}
~LockGuard()
{
lock_.Relase();
}
private:
LockType lock_;
};
bool Update()
{
LockGuard lockGuard(mutex);
if (...) {
return false;
} else {
// Data operations
}
return true;
}
The standard template library (STL) varies between products. The following table lists some basic rules and suggestions for each team.
Note: The C++ standard does not specify that the string::c_str () pointer is permanently valid. Therefore, the STL implementation used can return a temporary storage area and release it quickly when calling string::c_str (). Therefore, to ensure the portability of the program, do not save the result of string::c_str (). Instead, call it directly.
Example:
void Fun1()
{
std::string name = "demo";
const char* text = name.c_str(); // After the expression ends, the life cycle of name is still in use and the pointer is valid.
// If a non-const member function (such as operator[] and begin()) of the string type is invoked and the string is modified,
// The text may become unavailable or may not be the original string.
name = "test";
name[1] = '2';
// When the text pointer is used next time, the string is no longer "demo".
}
void Fun2()
{
std::string name = "demo";
std::string test = "test";
const char* text = (name + test).c_str(); // After the expression ends, the temporary object generated by the + operator may be destroyed, and the pointer may be invalid.
// When the text pointer is used next time, it no longer points to the valid memory space.
}
Exception: In rare cases where high performance coding is required , you can temporarily save the pointer returned by string::c_str() to match the existing functions which support only the input parameters of the const char* type. However, you should ensure that the lifecycle of the string object is longer than that of the saved pointer, and that the string object is not modified within the lifecycle of the saved pointer.
Note: Using string instead of char* has the following advantages:
+, =, and ==, and other character and string operation functions.new and delete and the resulting errors.Note that in some STL implementations, string is based on the copy-on-write policy, which causes two problems. One is that the copy-on-write policy of some versions does not implement thread security, and the program breaks down in multi-threaded environments. Second, dangling pointers may be caused when a dynamic link library transfers the string based on the copy-on-write policy, due to the fact that reference count cannot be reduced when the library is unloaded. Therefore, it is important to select a reliable STL implementation to ensure the stability of the program.
Exception:
When an API of a system or other third-party library is called, only char* can be used for defined interfaces. However, before calling the interfaces, you can use string. When calling the interfaces, you can use string::c_str() to obtain the character pointer.
When a character array is allocated as a buffer on the stack, you can directly define the character array without using string or containers such as vector<char>.
Note: The std::auto_ptr in the STL library has an implicit ownership transfer behavior. The code is as follows:
auto_ptr<T> p1(new T);
auto_ptr<T> p2 = p1;
After the second line of statements is executed, p1 does not point to the object allocated in line 1 and becomes NULL. Therefore, auto_ptr cannot be placed in any standard containers.
This ownership transfer behavior is not expected. In scenarios where ownership must be transferred, implicit transfer should not be used. This often requires the programmer to keep extra attention on code that uses auto_ptr, otherwise access to a null pointer will occur.
There are two common scenarios for using auto_ptr . One is to transfer it as a smart pointer to outside the function that generates the auto_ptr , and the other is to use auto_ptr as the RAII management class. Resources are automatically released when the lifecycle of auto_ptr expires.
In the first scenario, you can use std::shared_ptr instead.
In the second scenario, you can use std::unique_ptr in the C++ 11 standard. std::unique_ptr is a substitute for std::auto_ptr and supports explicit ownership transfer.
Exception: Before the C++ 11 standard is widely used, std::auto_ptr can be used in scenarios where ownership needs to be transferred. However, it is recommended that std::auto_ptr be encapsulated. The copy constructor and assignment operator of the encapsulation class should not be used in a standard container.
Note:
When using the standard header file of C++, use <cstdlib> instead of <stdlib.h>.
Add the keyword const before the declared variable or parameter (example: const int foo) to prevent the variable from being tampered with. Add the const qualifier to the function in the class (example: class Foo {int Bar (char c) const;} ;) to make sure the function does not modify the status of the class member variable. const variables, data members, functions, and parameters ensure that the type detection during compilation is accurate and errors are found as soon as possible. Therefore, we strongly recommend that const be used in any possible case.
Sometimes it is better to use constexpr from C++ 11 to define real constants.
Unchanging values are easier to understand, trace, and analyze. const is used as the default option and is checked during compilation to make the code more secure and reliable.
class Foo;
void PrintFoo(const Foo& foo);
Declare the member function as const whenever possible. The access function should always be const. So long as the function of a member is not modified, the function is declared with const.
When you need to modify data members in a virtual function, take all classes in the inheritance chain into account instead of only focusing on the implementation of a single class.
class Foo {
public:
// ...
int PrintValue() const // const modifies member functions and does not modify member variables.
{
std::cout << value_ << std::endl;
}
int GetValue() const // const modifies member functions and does not modify member variables.
{
return value_;
}
private:
int value_;
};
class Foo {
public:
Foo(int length) : dataLength_(length) {}
private:
const int dataLength_;
};
noexcept.Reasons:
noexcept, which enables the compiler to optimize the function to the maximum extent, for example, reducing the execution paths and improving the efficiency of exiting when an error occurs.vector, to ensure the interface robustness, if the move constructor of saved items is not declared as noexcept, the copy machanism instead of the move machanism is used when the items are removed from the container. This would cause performance loss risks. If the function does not throw an exception, or a program does not intercept and process an exception thrown by the function, new noexcept keywords can be used to modify the function, indicating that the function does not throw an exception or the thrown exception is not intercepted or processed. For example:extern "C" double sqrt(double) noexcept; // No exceptions are thrown.
// noexcept can still be used when exceptions may be thrown.
// The exception of memory exhaustion is not processed. The function is simply declared as noexcept.
std::vector<int> MyComputation(const std::vector<int>& v) noexcept
{
std::vector res = v; // Exceptions may be thrown.
// do something
return res;
}
Example:
RetType Function(Type params) noexcept; // Maximized optimization
RetType Function(Type params) noexcept; // No optimization
// Declaration as noexcept for the move operation of std::vector is needed.
class Foo1 {
public:
Foo1(Foo1&& other); // no noexcept
};
std::vector<Foo1> a1;
a1.push_back(Foo1());
a1.push_back(Foo1()); // The copy constructor is called to enable the container expansion and removal of existing items.
class Foo2 {
public:
Foo2(Foo2&& other) noexcept;
};
std::vector<Foo2> a2;
a2.push_back(Foo2());
a2.push_back(Foo2()); //Triggers container expansion and invokes the move constructor to move existing elements.
Note
The default constructor, destructor, swap function, and move operator should not throw an exception.
Template programming allows for extremely flexible interfaces that are type safe and high performance, enabling reuse of code of different types but with the same behavior.
The disadvantages of template proramming are as follows:
Therefore, it is recommended that __ template programming be used only in a small number of basic components and basic data structure__. When using the template programming, minimize the __ complexity as much as possible, and __ avoid exposing the template__. It is better to hide programming as an implementation detail whenever possible, so that user-facing headers are readable. And you should write sufficiently detailed comments for code that uses templates.
In the C++ language, it is strongly recommended that complex macros be used as little as possible.
const or enum as stated in the preceding sections.// The macro function is not recommended.
#define SQUARE(a, b) ((a) * (b))
// Use the template function and inline function as a replacement.
template<typename T> T Square(T a, T b) { return a * b; }
For details about how to use macros, see the related chapters about the C language specifications. Exception: For some common and mature applications, for example, encapsulation for new and delete, the use of macros can be retained.
As the ISO released the C++ 11 language standard in 2011 and released the C++ 17 in March 2017, the modern C++ (C++ 11/14/17) adds a large number of new language features and standard libraries that improve programming efficiency and code quality. This chapter describes some guidelines for modern C++ use, to avoid language pitfalls.
auto properly.Reasons
auto can help you avoid writing verbose, repeated type names, and can also ensure initialization when variables are defined.auto type deduction rules are complex and need to be read carefully.auto makes the code clearer, use a specific type of it and use it only for local variables.Example
// Avoid verbose type names.
std::map<string, int>::iterator iter = m.find(val);
auto iter = m.find(val);
// Avoid duplicate type names.
class Foo {...};
Foo* p = new Foo;
auto p = new Foo;
// Ensure that the initialization is successful.
int x; // The compilation is correct but the variable is not initialized.
auto x; // The compilation failed. Initialization is needed.
auto type deduction may cause the following problems:
auto a = 3; // int
const auto ca = a; // const int
const auto& ra = a; // const int&
auto aa = ca; // int, const and reference are neglected.
auto ila1 = { 10 }; // std::initializer_list<int>
auto ila2{ 10 }; // std::initializer_list<int>
auto&& ura1 = x; // int&
auto&& ura2 = ca; // const int&
auto&& ura3 = 10; // int&&
const int b[10];
auto arr1 = b; // const int*
auto& arr2 = b; // const int(&)[10]
If you do not pay attention to auto type deduction and ignore the reference, hard-to-find performance problems may be created.
std::vector<std::string> v;
auto s1 = v[0]; // auto deduction changes s1 to std::string in order to copy v[0].
If auto is used to define an interface, such as a constant in a header file, the type may be changed if the developer has modified the value.
override when rewriting virtual functions.Reason:
The keyword override ensures that the function is a virtual function and an overridden virtual function of the base class. If the subclass function is different from the base class function prototype, a compilation alarm is generated. final also ensures that virtual functions are not overridden by subclasses.
If you modify the prototype of a base class virtual function but forget to modify the virtual function overridden by the subclass, you can find inconsistency during compilation. You can also avoid forgetting to modify the overridden function when there are multiple subclasses.
Example
class Base {
public:
virtual void Foo();
virtual void Foo(int var);
void Bar();
};
class Derived : public Base {
public:
void Foo() const override; // Compilation failed: derived::Foo is different from that of the prototype of base::Foo and is not overridden.
void Foo() override; // Compilation successful: derived::Foo overrode base::Foo.
void Foo(int var) final; // Compilation successful: Derived::Foo(int) rewrites Base::Foo(int), and the derived class of Derived cannot override this function.
void Bar() override; // Compilation failed: base::Bar is not a virtual function.
};
Summary
virtual.override or final instead of virtual.virtual or override.delete to delete functions.Reason
The delete keyword is clearer and the application scope is wider than a class member function that is declared as private and not implemented.
Example:
class Foo {
private:
// Whether the copy structure is deleted or not is unknown because usually only the header file is checked.
Foo(const Foo&);
};
class Foo {
public:
// Explicitly delete the copy assignment operator.
Foo& operator=(const Foo&) = delete;
};
The delete keyword can also be used to delete non-member functions.
template<typename T>
void Process(T value);
template<>
void Process<void>(void) = delete;
nullptr instead of NULL or 0.Reason: For a long time, C++ has not had a keyword that represents a null pointer, which is embarrassing:
#define NULL ((void *)0)
char* str = NULL; // Error: void* cannot be automatically converted to char*.
void(C::*pmf)() = &C::Func;
if (pmf == NULL) {} // Error: void* cannot be automatically converted to the pointer that points to the member function.
If NULL is defined as 0 or 0L, the above problems can be solved.
Alternatively, use 0 directly in places where null pointers are required. However, another problem occurs. The code is not clear, especially when auto is used for automatic deduction.
auto result = Find(id);
if (result == 0) { // Does Find() return a pointer or an integer?
// do something
}
Literally 0 is of the int type (0L is the long type). Therefore, neither NULL nor 0 is a pointer type.
When a function of the pointer or integer type is overloaded, NULL or 0 calls only the overloaded pointer function.
void F(int);
void F(int*);
F(0); // Call F(int) instead of F(int*).
F(NULL); // Call F(int) instead of F(int*).
In addition, sizeof(NULL) == sizeof(void*) does not always make sense, which is a potential risk.
Summary: If 0 or 0L is directly used, the code is not clear and type security cannot be ensured. If NULL is used, the type security cannot be ensured. These are all potential risks.
nullptr has many advantages. It literally represents the null pointer and makes the code clearer. More to the point, it is no longer an integer type.
nullptr is of the std::nullptr_t type. std::nullptr_t can be implicitly converted into all original pointer types, so that nullptr can represent a null pointer that points to any type.
void F(int);
void F(int*);
F(nullptr); // Call F(int*).
auto result = Find(id);
if (result == nullptr) { // Find() returns a pointer.
// do something
}
using instead of typedef.For versions earlier than C++11, you can define the alias of the type by using typedef. No one wants to repeat code like std::map<uint32_t, std::vector<int>>.
typedef std::map<uint32_t, std::vector<int>> SomeType;
Using alias for the type is actually encapsulating the type. This encapsulation makes the code clearer, and to a large extent avoids the bulk modification caused by the type change.
For versions supporting C++ 11 features, using is provided to implement alias declarations:
using SomeType = std::map<uint32_t, std::vector<int>>;
Compare the two formats:
typedef Type Alias; // It cannot be told whether the original Type or Alias is at the front.
using Alias = Type; // The format confirms to the assignment rule. It is easy to understand and helps reduce errors.
If this is not enough to prove the advantages of using, the alias template may be a better example:
//: Only one line of code is need to define an alias for a template.
template<class T>
using MyAllocatorVector = std::vector<T, MyAllocator<T>>;
MyAllocatorVector data; // An alias for a template defined with "using".
template<class T>
class MyClass {
private:
MyAllocatorVector data_; // Another.
};
typedef does not support alias templates and they have to be hacked in.
// A template is used for packaging typedef. Therefore, a template class is needed.
template<class T>
struct MyAllocatorVector {
typedef std::vector<T, MyAllocator<T>> type;
};
MyAllocatorVector::type data; // ::type needs to be added when using typedef to define an alias.
template<class T>
class MyClass {
private:
typename MyAllocatorVector::type data_; // For a template class, typename is also needed in addition to ::type.
};
Literally, std::move means moving an object. The const object cannot be modified and cannot be moved. Therefore, using std::move to operate the const object may confuse code readers.
Regarding actual functions, std::move converts an object to the rvalue reference type. It can convert the const object to the rvalue reference of const. Because few types define the move constructor and the move assignment operator that use the const rvalue reference as the parameter, the actual function of code is often degraded to object copy instead of object movement, which brings performance loss.
Bad example:
std::string g_string;
std::vector<std::string> g_stringList;
void func()
{
const std::string myString = "String content";
g_string = std::move(myString); // Bad: myString is not moved. Instead, it is copied.
const std::string anotherString = "Another string content";
g_stringList.push_back(std::move(anotherString)); // Bad: anotherString is not moved. Instead, it is copied.
}
Reason: Avoid resource leakage.
Example:
void Use(int i)
{
auto p = new int {7}; // Bad: Initializing local pointers with new.
auto q = std::make_unique(9); // Good: Guarantee that memory is released.
if (i > 0) {
return; // Return and possible leak.
}
delete p; // Too late to salvage.
}
Exception: Raw pointers can be used in scenarios requiring high performance and compatibility.
unique_ptr instead of shared_ptr.Reasons:
shared_ptr a lot has an overhead (atomic operations on the shared_ptrs reference count have a measurable cost).std::make_unique instead of new to create a unique_ptr.Reasons:
make_unique provides a simpler creation method.make_unique ensures the exception safety of complex expressions.Example:
// Bad: MyClass appears twice, which carries a risk of inconsistency.
std::unique_ptr<MyClass> ptr(new MyClass(0, 1));
// Good: MyClass appears once and there is no possibility of inconsistency.
auto ptr = std::make_unique<MyClass>(0, 1);
Recurrence of types may cause serious problems, and it is difficult to find them:
// The code compiles fine, but new and delete usage does not match.
std::unique_ptr<uint8_t> ptr(new uint8_t[10]);
std::unique_ptr<uint8_t[]> ptr(new uint8_t);
// No exception safety: The compiler may calculate parameters in the following order:
// 1. Allocate the memory of Foo.
// 2. Construct Foo.
// 3. Call Bar.
// 4. Construct unique_ptr<Foo>.
// If Bar throws an exception, Foo is not destroyed and a memory leak occurs.
F(unique_ptr<Foo>(new Foo()), Bar());
// Exception safety: Calling of function is not interrupted.
F(make_unique<Foo>(), Bar());
Exception:
std::make_unique does not support user-defined deleter.
In the scenario where the deleter needs to be customized, it is recommended that make_unique be implemented in the customized version’s own namespace.
Using new to create unique_ptr with the user-defined deleter is the last choice.
shared_ptr by using std::make_shared instead of new.Reason:
In addition to the consistency factor similar to that in std::make_unique when using std::make_shared, performance is also a factor to consider.
std::shared_ptr manages two entities:
deleter, etc.)When std::make_shared creates std::shared_ptr, it allocates sufficient memory for storing control blocks and managed objects on the heap at a time. When std::shared_ptr<MyClass>(new MyClass)is used to create a std::shared_ptr, not only does new MyClass trigger heap allocation, but the constructor function of std::shard_ptr triggers a second heap allocation, resulting in extra overhead.
Exception:
Similar to std::make_unique, std::make_shared does not support deleter customization.
lambda to capture local variables or write local functions when normal functions do not work.Reason:
Functions cannot capture local variables or be declared at local scope. If you need those things, choose lambda instead of handwritten functor.
On the other hand, lambda and functor objects do not support overloading. If overloading is required, use a function.
If both lambda and functions work, a function is preferred. Use the simplest tool.
Example:
// Write a function that accepts only an int or string.
// -- Overloading is more natural.
void F(int);
void F(const string&);
// The local state needs to be captured or appear in the statement or expression range.
// -- A lambda is more natural.
vector<Work> v = LotsOfWork();
for (int taskNum = 0; taskNum < max; ++taskNum) {
pool.Run([=, &v] {...});
}
pool.Join();
Reason:
Using lambdas at a "nonlocal" scope includes returning, storing on the heap, and passing to another thread. Local pointers and references should not outlive their scope. Capturing by reference in lambdas indicates storing a reference to a local object. If this leads to a reference that exceeds the lifecycle of a local variable, capturing by reference should not be used.
Example:
// Bad
void Foo()
{
int local = 42;
// Capture a reference to a local variable.
// After the function returns results, local no longer exists,
// Process() call will have undefined behavior.
threadPool.QueueWork([&]{ Process(local); });
}
// Good
void Foo()
{
int local = 42;
// Capture a copy of local.
// Since a copy of local is made, it will be always available for the call.
threadPool.QueueWork([=]{ Process(local); });
}
this is captured.Reason:
The [=] in the member function seems to indicate capturing by value but actually it is capturing data members by reference because it captures the invisible this pointer by value. Generally, it is recommended that capturing by reference be avoided. If it is necessary to do so, write this explicitly.
Example:
class MyClass {
public:
void Foo()
{
int i = 0;
auto Lambda = [=]() { Use(i, data_); }; // Bad: It looks like we are copying or capturing by value but member variables are actually captured by reference.
data_ = 42;
Lambda(); // Call use(42);
data_ = 43;
Lambda(); // Call use(43);
auto Lambda2 = [i, this]() { Use(i, data_); }; // Good: the most explicit and least confusing method.
}
private:
int data_ = 0;
};
Reason: The lambda expression provides two default capture modes: by-reference (&) and by-value (=). By default, the "by-reference" capture mode will implicitly capture the reference of all local variables, which will easily lead to dangling references. By contrast, explicitly writing variables that need to be captured can make it easier to check the lifecycle of an object and reduce the possibility of making a mistake. By default, the "by-value” capture mode will implicitly capture this pointer, and it is difficult to find out which variables the lambda function depends on. If a static variable exists, the reader mistakenly considers that the lambda has copied a static variable. Therefore, it is required to clearly state the variables that lambda needs to capture, instead of using the default capture mode.
Bad example:
auto func()
{
int addend = 5;
static int baseValue = 3;
return [=]() { // Only addend is actually copied.
++baseValue; // The modification will affect the value of the static variable.
return baseValue + addend;
};
}
Good example:
auto func()
{
int addend = 5;
static int baseValue = 3;
return [addend, baseValue = baseValue]() mutable { // Uses the C++14 capture initialization to copy a variable.
++baseValue; // Modifying the copy of a static variable does not affect the value of the static variable.
return baseValue + addend;
};
}
Reference: Effective Modern C++: Item 31: Avoid default capture modes.
T* or T& arguments instead of a smart pointer in scenarios where ownership is not involved.Reasons:
this smart pointer) restricts the use of a function to callers using smart pointers.Example:
// Accept any int*.
void F(int*);
// Accept only integers for which you want to transfer ownership.
void G(unique_ptr<int>);
// Accept only integers for which you want to share ownership.
void G(shared_ptr<int>);
// Does not need to change the ownership but requires ownership of the caller.
void H(const unique_ptr<int>&);
// Accept any int.
void H(int&);
// Bad
void F(shared_ptr<Widget>& w)
{
// ...
Use(*w); // When only w is used, lifecycle management is not required.
// ...
};
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